fll-Ofl/3 


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w  •■ 


Issued  August 

T  STATION, 


M.  WESTGATE,  Agronomist  in  Charge. 


Bulletin    No.  40. 


THE  SOILS  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


W.  P.  KELLEY, 

Chemist, 


WM,  MoGEORGE 

AND 

ALICE  P.  THOMPSON, 

Assistant  Chemist*?- 


I     JDOftiMFI*|T«»frBlT 


n 


DEPOSITORY 


J 


*  UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF 

STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE, 
DEPARTMENT  OF   AGRICULTURE. 


/    WASHINGTON: 
*V  GOVERNMENT   PRINTING  OFFICE. 


***M9l*§l 


1915. 


Issued  August  2(>,  loir 

HAWAII  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

J.  M.  WESTGATE,  Agronomist  in  Charge. 


Bulletin    No.  40. 


THE  SOILS  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


BY 

W.  P.  KELLEY, 

Chemist, 


WM.  McGEORGE 

AND 

ALICE  R.  THOMPSON, 

Assistant  Chemists. 


UNDER   THE  SUPERVISION  OF 

STATES  RELATIONS  SERVICE, 

U.   S.   DEPARTMENT   OF    AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE. 

1915. 


HAWAII     AGRICULTURAL     EXPERIMENT    STATION,    HONOLULU. 

[Under  the  supervision  of  A.  C.  True,  Director  of  the  States  Relations  Service,  United   States 

Department  of  Agriculture.] 

Walter  H.  Evans,  Chief  of  Division  of  Insular  Stations,  States  Relations  Service. 

STATION  STAFF. 

J.  M.  Westgate,  Agronomist  in  Charge. 

J.  Edgar  Higgins,  Horticulturist. 

W.  P.  Kelley,1  Chemist. 

D.  T.  Ftjllaway,  Entomologist. 

Wm.  McGeorge,  Chemist. 

F.  G.  Krauss,  Superintendent  of  Extension  Work. 

Alice  R.  Thompson,  Assistant  Chemist. 

V.  S.  Holt,  Assistant  Horticulturist. 

C.  A.  Sahr,  Assistant  in  Agronomy. 

F.  A.  Clowes,  Superintendent  Hawaii  Substations. 

i  Resigned  October  27, 1914. 
(2) 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Honolulu,  Hawaii,  September  29,  1914. 
Sir:  I  hare  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  and  recommend  for 
publication  as  Bulletin  No.  40  of  the  Hawaii  Experiment  Station  a 
paper  on  The  Soils  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  by  W.  P.  Kelley,  chemist, 
and  William  McGeorge  and  Alice  R.  Thompson,  assistant  chemists. 
The  soil  investigations  of  the  station  for  the  past  six  years  have 
greatly  helped  in  elucidating  Hawaiian  soil  problems.  In  the  pres- 
ent bulletin  the  practical  bearings  of  these  scientific  investigations 
are  pointed  out. 

Respectfully, 

E.  V.  Wilcox, 
Special  Agent  in  Charge. 
Dr.  A.  C.  True, 

Director,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

V.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Publication  recommended. 
A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Publication  authorized. 

D.  F.  Houston,  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 

(3) 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Introduction 5 

Origin  and  formation 7 

Physical  properties 8 

Mechanical  classification 8 

Drainage  conditions 9 

Chemical  characteristics 10 

Potash 10 

Phosphoric  acid 11 

Nitrogen 11 

Peculiar  soils 12 

Coral  sand  soils 13 

Lime-magnesia  ratio 13 

Acidity  of  Hawaiian  soils 13 

Ferrous  iron 14 

Biological  conditions 14 

Nitrification 14 

Ammonification 15 

Soil  management 15 

Tillage 15 

Injurious  effect  of  puddling 16 

Rotation  of  crops 17 

Erosion  and  drainage 18 

Use  of  fertilizers 18 

Chemical  and  mechanical  composition  of  some  Hawaiian  soils 19 

(4) 


THE  SOILS  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  discuss  briefly  the  general  prop- 
erties of  the  soils  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  to  point  out  the  prac- 
tical bearings  of  the  investigations  1  that  have  been  made  on  them. 
For  about  six  years  the  writers  have  been  investigating  these  soils. 
One  phase  of  this  work  has  been  in  the  nature  of  a  soil  survey.  In 
this  connection  a  large  number  of  samples  have  been  collected  and 
a  number  of  unusual  peculiarities  and  soil  types  have  been  observed. 
Soon  after  beginning  this  work  it  became  apparent  that  the  main 
body  of  Hawaiian  soils  had  not  been  scientifically  investigated. 
Considerable  study  had  been  previously  devoted  to  the  soils  of 
Hawaii,  but  always  with  reference  to  special  localities  or  industries. 
Maxwell's  2  discussion  is  based  on  analyses  of  samples  drawn  from 
the  lands  devoted  to  sugar  cane  and  his  use  of  the  terms  "uplands" 
and  "lowlands"  refers  to  the  humid  and  arid,  or  upper  and  lower 
portions,  respectively,  of  the  sugar  belt.  However,  only  about 
250,000  acres  lying  along  the  shore  line,  out  of  a  total  area  of  over 
4,000,000  acres,  are  cultivated  in  this  crop.  The  investigations 
upon  which  this  bulletin  is  based  were  made  principally  on  the  upland 
soils  above  the  sugar  belt. 

Almost  the  entire  surface  of  Hawaii  is  characterized  by  a  rolling 
topography.  The  elevation  increases  everywhere  in  passing  inland 
from  the  sea,  the  grade  varying  in  different  localities.  Each  island 
contains  one  or  more  mountains  or  mountain  ranges  and  usually 
with  numerous  spurs  and  sharp  ridges  projecting  toward  the  sea. 
In  almost  every  section  the  arable  land  is  broken  up  by  gulches  or 
deep  ravines,  which  now  form  natural  watercourses,  the  beds  of 
some  of  which  have  been  worn  to  great  depths.  This  has  brought 
about  the  loss  of  a  great  amount  of  tillable  land  and  adds  greatly 
to  the  cost  of  farm  operations.  The  tillable  lands  generally  occur  in 
comparatively  narrow  strips  of  irregular  size  and  shape  between 
gulches  and  extend  from  the  sea  toward  the  mountains. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  area  of  arable  land,  only  a  small 
percentage  of  which  has  yet  been  brought  under  cultivation.  The 
main  portion  is  now  being  used  for  pasture  in  much  the  same  way 
as  in  the  great  range  sections  of  the  mainland.     The  rainfall  varies 

1  See  Hawaii  Sta.  Buls.  26,  28,  30,  31,  33,  35,  37,  and  38. 

*  Lavas  and  Soils  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     Honolulu,  1808. 

(5) 


between  wide  extremes;  in  some  localities  semiarid  or  even  arid 
conditions  prevail,  but  over  a  large  part  of  the  uplands  the  rainfall 
is  sufficient  for  a  great  variety  of  crops.  In  portions  of  the  windward 
side  of  Maui  and  Hawaii,  i.  e.,  the  side  first  reached  by  the  northeast 
trade  winds,  the  rainfall  is  very  heavy.  Until  recently  the  main 
portion  of  the  upland  on  account  of  its  inadaptability  to  sugar  was 
thought  to  be  unsuited  to  cultivated  crops.  Slowly,  however,  it  is 
being  brought  under  cultivation  and  with  the  advent  of  a  more 
numerous  small  farming  class  it  is  likely  that  practically  all  of  the 
tillable  lands  of  the  islands  will  be  utilized  for  cultivated  crops. 
There  are  no  valid  reasons  why  general  farming  could  not  be  prac- 
ticed on  these  lands.  The  soils  are  rich  and  adapted  to  a  wide 
range  of  crops.  In  the  more  arid  sections  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  dry-land  farming  will  doubtless  insure  the  success  of 
many  crops.  The  increasing  demands  for  land  for  cultivation  in 
recent  years  have  brought  to  the  station  many  requests  for  infor- 
mation regarding  the  soils.  A  part  of  this  information  it  is  hoped 
will  be  supplied  by  this  bulletin. 

It  should  be  understood  from  the  outset  that  the  methods  of 
classification  and  mapping  usually  employed  in  soil  surveys  are 
not  adapted  to  Hawaiian  conditions  and  that  nothing  less  than  a 
systematic  sampling  of  almost  every  acre  will  suffice  to  give  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  location  of  all  soil  types.  This  is  especially  true 
of  Oahu,  where  both  the  chemical  and  physical  composition  vary 
greatly  in  passing  over  short  distances.  For  this  reason  no  attempt 
to  map  the  soil  areas  will  be  made.  Furthermore,  the  peculiar  prop- 
erties of  Hawaiian  soils  are  such  as  to  render  the  use  of  terms  em- 
ployed in  the  description  of  soil  types  elsewhere  of  doubtful  applica- 
tion. In  some  instances  the  common  systems  of  classification  have 
been  used,  however,  but  the  reader  is  cautioned  against  too  strict 
interpretation  of  these  terms. 

The  term  "clay"  especially  requires  definition.  In  the  Tropics, 
where  the  soils  have  been  formed  from  the  disintegration  of  basaltic 
lava,  the  so-called  clay  is  usually  not  composed  of  aluminum  silicate, 
and  its  properties  sometimes  differ  greatly  from  true  clay.  The  soils 
of  Hawaii,  although  usually  very  heavy  in  character  and  frequently 
containing  as  much  as  50  per  cent  by  weight  of  particles  as  fine  as 
clay,  are  not  clay  soils  in  the  true  sense.  They  are  characterized  by 
a  high  content  of  iron  and  aluminum  hydrates  and  low  silica  content. 
Such  soils  are  designated  as  laterites,  and  recently  the  process  leading 
to  their  formation  has  been  designated  as  lateritization,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  term  "kaolinization,"  used  in  reference  to  clay  forma- 
tion. The  clay  seems  to  be  composed  mainly  of  iron  and  aluminum 
hydrates  and  a  double  silicate  of  iron  and  alumina. 


There  are  also  some  very  unusual  types  of  soil  in  the  islands.  On 
Oahu  highly  manganiferous  and  titaniferous  soils  occur,  the  former 
sometimes  containing  almost  10  per  cent  manganese  oxid  and  the 
latter  as  high  as  35  per  cent  titanium  dioxid  (Ti02).  No  such  soils 
are  known  to  occur  in  any  other  country  of  the  world. 

ORIGIN  AND  FORMATION. 

The  soils  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  with  the  exception  of  small 
areas  near  the  sea,  have  been  formed  from  the  disintegration  prod- 
ucts of  basaltic  lava.  The  lava  is  composed  mainly  of  pyroxenes, 
amphiboles,  and  soda-lime  feldspars,  with  small  amounts  of  mag- 
netic oxid  of  iron.  They  are,  therefore,  highly  ferruginous  and  basic. 
At  the  time  of  flow,  and  possibly  to  some  extent  afterwards,  the 
vapors  of  burning  sulphur  act  on  the  lava  with  the  consequent  forma- 
tion of  sulphates.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  gypsum  is  traceable 
to  this  cause.  The  most  important  disintegrating  agent  is  weather- 
ing. One  of  the  first  changes  which  takes  place  in  the  lava  is  that  of 
oxidation.  The  iron  in  the  original  lava  occurs  mainly  in  the  ferrous 
state,  but  upon  exposure  to  the  air  the  normal  gray  color  quickly 
changes  to  red  or  yellow,  due  to  the  oxidation  and  subsequent  hydra- 
tion of  the  iron.  Coincident  with  oxidation  leaching  takes  place. 
The  lime,  magnesia,  and  soda  to  a  large  extent,  and  potash  to  lesser 
degree,  are  leached  out  by  rain  waters  as  silicates  and  carbonates, 
leaving  behind  a  residue  rich  in  iron  and  alumina,  but  much  reduced 
in  silica  content. 

The  normal  lavas  from  the  main  craters  seem  to  be  quite  uniform 
in  composition,  while  the  flows  from  the  secondary  craters  vary  in 
composition,  due  perhaps  to  mixing  with  weathered  and  partially 
decomposed  material  near  the  surface.  As  oxidation  proceeds,  the 
surface  of  the  lava  crumbles  away,  thus  allowing  rain  waters  free 
access  to  the  interior,  and  consequently  greatly  increasing  the  rate 
of  solution.  Another  potent  agent  in  the  formation  of  soils  is  the 
growth  and  subsequent  decay  of  plant  roots.  Within  an  incredibly 
short  time  after  a  lava  flow  plant  life  gains  a  foothold,  which,  aided 
by  the  solvent  and  oxidative  effects  naturally  going  on,  soon  pushes 
its  roots  into  cracks  and  crevices.  The  carbonic  acid  given  off  by 
the  roots  aids  in  the  decomposition,  and  the  excessive  heat  of  the 
tropical  sun  considerably  hastens  the  solutions  and  oxidations  going 
on.     In  general,  soil  formation  is  extremely  rapid  in  the  islands. 

Much  of  the  soil  at  the  lower  elevations  has  been  formed  by  sedi- 
mentation and  erosion  from  higher  elevations.  In  fact  there  is  much 
evidence  that  these  processes  account  mainly  for  the  location  and 
formation  of  the  sporadic  types  of  manganiferous  and  titaniferous 
soils  of  Oahu.  In  many  places,  however,  the  soils  are  residual,  with 
oidy  slight  transportation  of  soil  material  at  most.     In  many  sections 


8 

the  disintegration  has  been  so  complete  that  scarcely  a  trace  of 
unaltered  lava  can  be  detected  in  the  soil. 

The  soils  range  from  6  inches  to  many  feet  in  depth.  After  a  few 
years  of  cultivation  but  little  demarcation  between  the  soil  and  the 
subsoil  is  left,  except  in  locations  of  heavy  rainfall.  The  humus  con- 
tent in  passing  downward  decreases  slowly,  but  the  fertility  in  the 
drier  sections  is  not  greatly  different  for  many  feet  below  the  surface. 
Where  the  drainage  and  aeration  conditions  are  suitable,  plant  roots 
penetrate  to  great  depths,  and  there  is  every  indication  that  the  plant 
food  is  as  available  several  feet  below  as  on  the  surface.  No  inju- 
rious effects,  such  as  commonly  follow  the  turning  up  of  inert  subsoil, 
are  produced  in  the  drier  sections  by  plowing  to  the  depth  of  30  inches. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. 

It  is  recognized  that  the  physical  properties  of  Hawaiian  soils 
demand  far  more  attention  than  usual;  and  it  seems  that  purely 
physical  factors  within  the  control  of  the  farmer  are  probably  more 
important  than  the  chemistry  involved.  The  difficulties  met  with 
in  the  maintenance  of  suitable  tilth,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  soil 
becomes  closely  compacted  following  rains,  the  lack  of  drainage  and 
aeration,  and  the  striking  effects  of  green  manuring  and  soil  burning 
are  all  probably  explainable  in  large  part  on  physical  grounds. 

MECHANICAL    CLASSIFICATION. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  classify  completely  the  soils  of  every 
section;  in  general,  however,  they  may  be  divided  into  clay,  silt, 
sandy,  and  humus  soils.  The  clay  type  is  the  most  abundant  and 
in  some  instances  contains  unusually  large  amounts  of  clay,  ranging 
as  high  as  50  per  cent.  The  upland  soils  of  Oahu,  with  the  exception 
of  the  manganiferous  and  titaniferous  areas,  belong  to  the  heavy 
clay  type.  The  subsoils  usually  contain  still  more  clay.  In  these 
sections  practically  no  sand  or  gravel  occurs,  and  the  humus  content 
is  comparatively  low.  The  soils  of  windward  Oahu  contain  some- 
what less  clay  than  the  above  and  more  silt  and  gravel,  and  are  con- 
sequently less  difficult  to  till,  but  the  subsoils  contain  higher  per- 
centages of  clay  and  much  less  organic  matter  than  the  surface  soils. 
The  manganiferous  and  titaniferous  soils,  above  referred  to,  are 
silty  in  character,  while  small  areas  of  arable  land  in  some  localities 
around  the  coast  on  the  leeward  side  of  Oahu  resemble  adobe. 

The  Haiku  district  of  Maui  is  composed  largely  of  clay  and  clay 
loam  soils  with  somewhat  more  humus  than  on  Oahu.  The  Kula 
district  is  characterized  by  a  light  silty  soil  of  high  humus  content 
which  is  several  feet  deep  in  some  places.  The  Nahiku  soils  are 
high  in  humus  and  contain  much  stone  and  gravel.     The  soils  of 


9 

west  Maui,  particularly  the  land  of  the  Honolua  Ranch  Co.,  belong 
to  the  clay  type. 

On  the  island  of  Hawaii  great  diversity  of  soil  types  occur,  and 
only  the  most  general  statements  can  be  made  at  the  present  time. 
In  the  Olaa  district,  whore  the  precipitation  is  very  heavy,  the  soils 
contain  a  large  amount  of  partially  decomposed  organic  matter  and 
are  sandy  or  gravelly  in  texture.  Along  the  Hamakua  coast  above 
the  sugar  belt  a  comparatively  high  percentage  of  clay  occurs  in 
some  places;  in  others  the  soil  has  a  high  humus  content.  The  soils 
of  the  Kohala  district  are  clay  loams,  shading  off  to  the  west  into 
silty  loams.  There  is  a  large  body  of  a  deep,  loose,  silty  soil,  high  in 
humus  in  this  district  that  is  now  occupied  by  the  Parker  Ranch  Co. 
In  the  Kona  section  the  soils  vary  enormously.  In  places  the  virgin 
fern  soils  contain  unusually  high  percentages  of  humus  and,  generally 
speaking,  more  or  less  stones  and  gravel. 

The  soils  of  Kauai,  that  have  been  most  "thoroughly  investigated, 
were  from  Kapaa  and  the  McBryde  homesteads.  The  Kapaa  lands 
contain  high  percentages  of  clay  and  are  liberally  supplied  with 
humus;  sometimes  they  resemble  adobe.  The  McBryde  homestead 
section  is  composed  principally  of  clay  loams.  An  insufficient  number 
of  samples  have  been  examined  from  the  other  sections  of  the  islands 
to  justify  any  generalization.  The  table  of  mechanical  analyses  at 
the  end  of  the  bulletin  will  give  some  idea  of  the  physical  composition 
of  representative  samples  from  different  districts. 

DRAINAGE    CONDITIONS. 

Proper  drainage  is  one  of  the  greatest  necessities  in  Hawaiian  soil 
management.  The  rainfall  in  some  sections  is  heavy  throughout  the 
year,  and  in  almost  all  sections  heavy  rains  sometimes  occur.  It  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  excessive  rains  be  able  to  drain 
away  without  eroding  the  surface  into  gullies  or  flowing  over  it,  for 
in  the  latter  event  great  injury  will  result  from  puddling  the  clay 
and  shutting  the  air  away  from  the  roots  of  plants.  Unless  proper 
drainage  be  provided,  suitable  conditions  of  aeration  in  times  of  wet 
weather  will  be  impossible.  One  of  the  most  perplexing  questions 
that  the  pineapple  growers  have  had  to  contend  with  is  that  of  drain- 
age, and  as  yet  no  thoroughly  satisfactory  method  has  been  devised. 
Generally  the  open-ditch  system  prevails.  Drainage  is  naturally 
most  difficult  in  heavy  clay  soils  such  as  predominate  in  the  pine- 
apple sections. 

The  application  of  lime  for  the  purpose  of  ameliorating  the  heavy 
clays  seems  to  be  of  doubtful  effect.  In  some  instances  lime  fails  to 
cause  granulation  such  as  takes  place  in  normal  clays.  The  clay  is 
present  in  a  state  of  such  fine  division  as  to  be  colloidal  and  has  the 
power  of  imbibing  large  amounts  of  water.  When  wet  the  iron  and 
98554°— Bull.  40—15 2 


10 

alumina  become  partially  hydrated,  and  the  soil  mass  swells  con- 
siderably, thereby  effectively  closing  the  pores.  Upon  drying  out 
contraction  takes  place,  which  results  in  the  formation  of  large  cracks. 
Thus  the  roots  are  injured  and  a  condition  provided  for  rapid  evapor- 
ation of  the  soil  moisture.  This  can  be  prevented  only  by  increasing 
the  humus  and  maintaining  a  mulch  on  the  surface.  It  is  evident 
from  the  above  that  a  condition  of  insufficient  aeration  prevails  in 
the  clay  soils  during  times  of  wet  weather,  and  in  fact  anaerobic 
conditions  often  prevail. 

Investigations  on  the  physical  properties  of  Hawaiian  soils  show 
that  fertilizers  exert  considerable  physical  effect.  Phosphates 
materially  retard  the  movement  of  moisture  in  the  heavy  clays,  while 
nitrate  of  soda  produces  similar  effects  in  some  of  the  highly  organic 
soils.  A  number  of  fertilizing  substances  cause  a  deflocculation  of 
the  clay.  It  has  been  found,  on  the  other  hand,  that  heat  causes 
the  clay  to  become  granulated  and,  therefore,  is  a  means  of  increasing 
aeration  and  drainage. 

The  predominant  color  of  Hawaiian  soils  is  red,  due  to  iron  which 
is  present  in  large  amounts.  Various  shades  of  red  often  occur  close 
together.  There  are  also  considerable  areas  of  yellow  soil.  These 
colors  seem  to  be  referable  to  the  state  of  hydration  of  the  iron.  The 
dark  red  color  which  predominates  in  the  more  arid  sections  is  prob- 
ably due  to  amorphous  hematite  and  the  yellow  color  to  limonite. 
In  the  humid  sections,  where  the  humus  content  is  not  high,  the  color 
of  the  soil  is  generally  lighter,  due  to  the  iron  being  in  the  ferrous  form. 
The  iron  is  generally  so  abundant  and  completely  disseminated  in  the 
soil  as  to  obscure  the  humus  unless  present  in  large  amounts. 

CHEMICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Soils  naturally  partake  to  a  considerable  extent  of  the  nature  of  the 
minerals  from  which  they  have  been  derived,  and,  since  Hawaiian 
soils  have  been  formed  from  basaltic  lava,  they  are  potentially  basic. 
This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  in  all  cases  the  soils  are  free  from 
acidity,  as  will  be  pointed  out  later.  In  general  Hawaiian  soils  con- 
tain unusually  high  percentages  of  iron  and  alumina,  the  former 
sometimes  exceeding  50  per  cent  by  weight.  The  silica  content  is 
low  as  compared  with  mainland  soils.  Lime  and  magnesia  are 
present  in  quite  variable  amounts,  but  usually  more  abundantly  than 
in  nonlimestone  countries. 

POTASH. 

The  potash  content  on  the  whole  is  rather  below  the  average,  but 
frequently  it  is  relatively  more  soluble  than  usual  and  consequently 
more  available.  It  is  also  more  constant  in  different  sections  of  the 
islands  than  any  other  of  the  so-called  plant-food  constituents. 


11 

PHOSPHORIC   ACID. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  comparatively  abundant,  but  there  is  a  wide 
range  of  variation  in  the  percentages  present.  The  upland  soils  of 
Oahu  generally,  but  not  always,  contain  less  phosphoric  acid  than 
any  other  extensive  body  of  arable  land  in  the  islands.  The  soils  of 
windward  Oahu,  with  the  exception  of  the  lowlands  devoted  to  rice, 
also  usually  contain  small  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid.  The 
Kula  soils  are  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  the  Haiku  soils  intermediate, 
while  in  the  Nahiku  section  of  Maui  'the  content  is  variable.  The 
soils  of  Kohala  on  Hawaii  are  unusually  rich  in  phosphoric  acid.  It 
must  not  be  understood  that  the  above  statements  apply  universally 
to  a  given  section  for  there  is  often  great  variation  in  comparatively 
short  distances. 

Notwithstanding  the  high  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid  in  many 
Hawaiian  soils  the  availability  is,  on  the  whole,  rather  low,  and  phos- 
phate fertilization  is  necessary  in  most  instances  except  where  the 
humus  content  is  high.  The  low  availability  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
is  probably  due  to  its  being  chemically  combined  with  iron  and 
aluminum  in  difficultly  soluble  combinations.  Hawaiian  soils  have 
the  power  of  fixing  enormous  amounts  of  soluble  phosphates.  Experi- 
ments have  demonstrated  that  the  red  clay  type  of  soil  can  fix  more 
than  4  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  phosphoric  acid.  There  is,  therefore, 
very  little  danger  of  loss  of  phosphoric  acid  by  leaching.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  also  necessary  to  thoroughly  mix  phosphate  fertilizers 
with  the  soil  in  order  that  the  distribution  of  roots  may  not  be  too 
near  the  surface.  Experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  various  phos- 
phates continue  to  be  available  for  a  considerable  time  after  having 
been  applied,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  phosphoric  acid  is 
insoluble  in  water.  Decaying  organic  matter  exercises  a  very  marked 
effect  on  the  availability  of  phosphates,  and  even  insoluble  forms  may 
be  made  available  by  plowing  under  green  manure.     ■ 

NITROGEN. 

As  stated  above,  the  humus  content  is  high  as  compared  with 
mainland  soils,  and  consequently  the  nitrogen  is  also  high,  but  its 
availability  is  low,  due  to  poor  aeration.  The  soils  of  Kula,  Nahiku, 
Olaa,  and  parts  of  Kohala  and  Kona  on  Hawaii  are  generally  very 
rich  in  nitrogen.  Table  II  shows  the  percentages  of  humus  and  nitro- 
gen in  representative  samples  from  these  districts. 

On  account  of  there  being  a  high  percentage  of  nitrogen  present, 
it  is  desirable  to  increase  its  availability  whenever  possible.  This 
can  best  be  done  by  increasing  the  aeration,  thereby  improving  the 
conditions  for  bacterial  action  which  decomposes  the  organic  nitrogen 
into  available  forms.     It  has  been  found,  however,  that  heating  soil 


12 

greatly  increases  the  ammonia  content  and  is  a  means  of  making 
available  a  considerable  portion  of  the  nitrogen,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  in  so  doing  considerable  loss  of  nitrogen  takes  place 
through  the  destructive  effect  of  the  heat. 

PECULIAR   SOILS. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  Hawaiian  soils  is  the  unusually  high  con- 
tent of  some  of  the  rarer  elements,  notably  manganese  and  titanium, 
which  are  supposed  not  to  be  necessary  for  plant  growth.  The  man- 
ganiferous  soils,  with  relatively  unimportant  exceptions,  are  located 
only  on  Oahu  between  the  Koolau  and  Waianae  Mountains,  but  it 
is  not  possible  to  give  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  extent  of  this  type 
or  to  trace  its  location  in  detail.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  to  occur 
most  abundantly  toward  the  lower  levels  between  the  mountain 
ranges,  in  pockets  or  level  stretches  that  receive  the  drainage  and  wash 
from  higher  levels.  This  type  of  soil  occurs  most  abundantly  in  the 
Waipio,  Wahiawa,  and  Halemanu  districts,  but  may  also  be  found 
in  portions  of  Waialua,  Waimea,  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Oahu 
Sugar  Co.'s  land.  There  are  also  small  areas  of  highly  manganiferous 
soil  near  Haiku  on  Maui,  Homestead  on  Kauai,  and  in  the  Palawai 
Basin  of  Lanai. 

Sometimes  the  manganese  areas  are  small,  while  in  other  places  as 
much  as  20  or  more  acres  may  occur  in  one  body.  The  percentage  of 
manganese  varies  greatly.  A  few  tenths  of  1  per  cent  occur  in  nearly 
all  Hawaiian  soils.  The  manganiferous  soils,  however,  often  contain 
more  than  5  per  cent,  expressed  as  manganese  oxid  (Mn304).  These 
soils  are  characterized  by  a  dark  color,  sometimes  almost  black,  due 
to  the  presence  of  manganese  dioxid,  and  have  a  silty  texture  in  con- 
trast to  the  heavy  clay  character  of  the  surrounding  soils.  Generally 
concretions  composed  of  manganese  dioxid  can  be  found  mixed  with 
the  soil  and  more  abundantly  in  the  subsoil.  The  manganese  is 
nearly  always  more  abundant  in  the  soil  than  in  the  subsoil.  In 
some  places  where  the  surface  soil  contains  more  than  4  per  cent  the 
subsoil  contains  less  than  1  per  cent.,  A  high  manganese  content  is 
quite  injurious  to  pineapples,  causing  the  leaves  to  become  yellow 
and  lowering  the  quality  of  the  fruit.  Some  other  crops  are  also 
injuriously  affected,  but  sugar  cane,  sisal,  cabbage,  turnips,  and  some 
other  crops  seem  to  be  unaffected. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  manganiferous  soils,  it  is  not  possible  to  locate 
definitely  all  of  the  highly  titaniferous  areas.  All  Hawaiian  soils 
contain  comparatively  high  percentages  of  titanium.  The  soils  of 
the  Kunia  section,  however,  are  unusually  high  in  titanium,  containing 
in  some  instances  as  much  as  35  per  cent  titanium  dioxid  (Ti02),  but 
the  titanium  is  relatively  insoluble,  and  consequently  the  usual  agri- 
cultural analysis  fails  to  show  the  total  amount  present. 


13 

It  seems  that  titanium  is  inert  toward  plant  growth.  It  is  ex- 
tremely insoluble  and  occurs  to  some  extent  as  small  fragments  of  a 
black  mineral,  possibly  ilmenite.  Generally  speaking,  the  titanium 
soils  are  silty,  but  sometimes  they  have  a  very  fine  texture.  In  a 
few  places  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  Wahiawa  district,  Opaeula 
and  Kunia  on  Oahu,  and  near  Pogue's  station  on  Maui  it  occurs  in  the 
form  of  a  blue  gray  layer  composed  of  very  fine  particles  which  soil 
the  fingers  very  much  like  charcoal.  Sometimes  a  high  percentage  of 
ferrous  iron  is  associated  with  the  titanium.  If  phosphoric  acid  should 
become  chemically  combined  with  the  titanium,  the  insoluble  nature 
of  this  compound  would  render  it  unavailable  to  plants. 

CORAL    SAND    SOILS. 

These  soils  are  of  relatively  small  importance  and  are  located  near 
the  sea  level.  Such  soils,  as  the  name  indicates,  have  been  formed 
mainly  from  grains  of  coral  sand,  which  are  composed  chiefly  of 
calcium  carbonate.  After  the  sand  banks  have  been  built  up  above 
sea  level,  organic  matter  and  small  amounts  of  soil  gradually  become 
incorporated  with  them,  and  certain  plants  soon  gain  a  foothold,  re- 
sulting in  the  formation  of  humus  and  later  in  a  fairly  fertile  soil. 
An  important  use  to  which  the  coral  beds  and  sand  banks  are  being 
put  is  as  a  source  of  lime  which  is  recommended  for  use  where  liming 
is  needed. 

LIME-MAGNESIA    RATIO. 

Hawaiian  lava  contains  considerably  more  lime  than  magnesia,  but 
frequently  the  opposite  is  the  case  with  the  soil.  Generally  speaking, 
the  soils  formed  from  black  sand  contain  much  higher  percentages  of 
magnesia  than  lime.  Therefore,  the  lime-magnesia  ratio  is  abnormal. 
So  far  as  is  now  known,  however,  no  injurious  effects  are  produced  on 
crops.  Experiments  carried  out  with  the  object  of  modifying  the 
ratio  of  lime  to  magnesia  have  not  indicated  any  practical  advantage 
to  be  derived  in  this  way.  The  lime  is  much  more  soluble  than  the 
magnesia,  even  where  the  magnesia  content  greatly  exceeds  that  of 
lime. 

ACIDITY   OF   HAWAIIAN    SOILS. 

Notwithstanding  the  highly  basic  character  of  Hawaiian  soils,  they 
generally  give  an  acid  reaction  toward  litmus.  The  acidity,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  Vietch  method,  sometimes  indicates  the  need  of  large 
amounts  of  lime.  In  harmony  with  this  is  the  very  low  content  of 
carbonate  except  where  coral  sand  is  present.  The  soils  around 
Honolulu,  for  example,  contain  not  more  than  0.1  per  cent  carbon 
dioxid  (C02),  although  the  lime  and  magnesia  are  high.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  sod  lands  are  generally  acid,  but  it  seems  that  the 
slow  growth  of  crops  is- due  more  to  the  lack  of  aeration  than  the 
presence   of   actual   acidity.     Lime  has  been  used   to   considerable 


14 

extent  on  the  sugar  lands  with  good  effects,  but  in  many  instances 
negative  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  pineapple  growers.  Where 
liming  is  to  be  practiced;  coral  sand  is  recommended. 

With  the  exception  of  phosphoric  acid,  all  the  mineral  elements  of 
plant  food  in  Hawaiian  soils  are  soluble  in  water  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  if  suitable  physical  conditions  be  maintained,  and  the 
humus  content  kept  up,  the  need  for  mineral  fertilizers  will  be  greatly 
reduced.  The  solubility  of  the  mineral  constituents  can  also  be  con- 
siderably increased  by  soil  heating,  which  probably  is  a  factor  in  the 
more  vigorous  growth  of  crops  noticed  where  refuse  had  been  burned. 

FERROUS   IRON. 

Soluble  ferrous  iron  is  considered  to  be  toxic  to  plants,  but  the 
amount  of  water  soluble  ferrous  iron  in  Hawaiian  soils  is  extremely 
small,  except  where  there  is  insufficient  aeration.  Poor  drainage  and 
an  excess  of  water  in  soils  prevents  the  circulation  of  air,  and  such  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  the  formation  of  soluble  ferrous  iron.  The 
injurious  effects  on  crops  attending  heavy  rains  may  be  due  to  some 
extent  to  the  formation  of  ferrous  compounds.  The  high  iron  content 
of  Hawaiian  soils  is  composed  in  part  of  insoluble  ferrous  oxid,  but 
the  imperfections  in  analytical  methods  do  not  permit  of  its  accurate 
determination.  Consequently  the  percentages  of  ferrous  iron  are  not 
given  in  the  tables  of  analysis. 

BIOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS. 

The  availability  of  nitrogen  in  soils  depends  on  the  activity  of  bac- 
teria and  fungi.  There  are  many  factors  that  influence  their  activity, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  state  of  aeration.  In  general 
the  aeration  of  Hawaiian  soils  is  not  sufficient  for  the  best  development 
of  beneficial  bacteria.  Consequently  the  nitrogen  does  not  become 
available  fast  enough  for  maximum  growth  of  crops. 

NITRIFICATION. 

Nitrification  in  soils  requires  the  free  movement  of  air,  and  the 
more  restricted  the  circulation  of  air  the  less  actively  are  nitrates 
formed.  This  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  contrasting  nitrification 
in  the  silty  soils  of  Kula  and  the  Parker  ranch,  where  active  nitrifi- 
cation takes  place,  with  that  of  the  heavy  clay  types  common  in 
other  parts  of  the  islands.  In  the  rice  soils  nitrification  is  suspended 
and  the  clay  soils  frequently  contain  almost  no  nitrate.  The  inert- 
ness often  observed  in  newly  plowed  sod  lands  is  due  in  part  to  the 
lack  of  nitrification.  It  follows,  then,  that  any  treatment  which  in- 
creases soil  aeration  also  stimulates  nitrification.  As  pointed  out 
above,  aeration  may  be  increased  by  increasing  the  humus  content, 
and  probably  one  of  the  most  important  reasons  for  the  beneficial 


15 

effects  of  green  manuring  is  that  it  stimulates  bacterial  action.  It 
is  commonly  believed  that  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime  is 
essential  for  nitrification,  through  the  maintenance  of  neutral  con- 
ditions, but  it  seems  that  when  other  conditions  are  suitable,  active 
nitrification  takes  place  in  Hawaiian  soils  which  contain  unusually 
small  amounts  of  lime.  The  results  of  our  experiments  indicate 
that  the  iron  and  alumina  present  may  partially  take  the  place  of 
lime  in  maintaining  the  necessary  neutral  condition.  On  the  other 
hand,  experiments  show  that  magnesium  carbonate  seems  to  be 
distinctly  detrimental  to  nitrification,  while  the  magnesia  naturally 
present  in  the  soils  does  not  seem  to  interfere.  While  nitrate  is 
probably  the  most  available  form  of  nitrogen,  ammonia  is  also 
available  for  certain  crops. 

AMMONIFICATION. 

Ammoriifi cation  is  more  active  in  Hawaiian  soils  than  nitrification, 
and  investigations  show  that  aeration  is  not  as  essential  to  this  pro- 
cess as  it  is  to  nitrification.  Aeration,  however,  also  stimulates 
ammonification.  During  the  several  months,  in  which  new  lands 
are  usually  cultivated  previous  to  planting,  ammonification  and 
nitrification  are  each  stimulated  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  in 
many  localities  only  very  small  amounts  of  nitrate  are  found.  In 
such  instances  plants  seem  to  absorb  the  nitrogen  most  largely  in  the 
form  of  ammonia.  In  the  case  of  aquatic  plants  ammonia  is  prefer- 
able to  nitrates.  Soil  heating  stimulates  the  formation  of  ammonia, 
both  as  a  direct  result  of  the  heat  on  the  organic  nitrogen  and  proba- 
bly indirectly,  by  increasing  the  activity  of  bacteria.  It  has  also 
been  found  that  the  application  of  lime  stimulates  the  formation  of 
ammonia,  and  magnesium  carbonate  produces  still  greater  stimula- 
tion. The  effects  of  magnesium  carbonate  on  ammonification  are 
therefore  the  opposite  of  those  on  nitrification. 

All  Hawaiian  soils  seem  to  be  abundantly  supplied  with  bacteria, 
and  the  wide  distribution  and  vigorous  growth  of  a  great  variety  of 
leguminous  plants  indicate  that  the  tubercle-forming  organisms  are 
abundantly  distributed.  In  fact,  nodules  occur  on  the  roots  of 
many  leguminous  plants  in  the  islands.  Up  to  the  present  time 
very  little  use  has  been  made  of  artificial  inoculation,  and  it  is  of 
doubtful  importance. 

SOIL,  MANAGEMENT. 
TILLAGE. 

A  part  of  the  high  cost  of  tillage  in  Hawaii  is  traceable  to  the  un- 
usual properties  of  the  soil.  The  clay  when  wet  is  extremely  sticky 
and,  even  when  the  moisture  content  is  low,  it  adheres  tenaciously 
to  the  plow,  thus  materially  increasing  the  draft.     Frequent  deep 


16 

plowing,  however,  is  a  necessity.  The  subsoil,  upon  standing,  be- 
comes closely  compacted,  and  heavy  rains  and  walking  over  the 
surface  greatly  increase  this  tendency.  Consequently  it  is  neces- 
sary to  replow  at  frequent  intervals.  In  many  localities  the  aeration 
is  restricted  to  a  layer  a  few  inches  in  depth  near  the  surface  and  nitri- 
fication scarcely  ever  becomes  active.  Deep  plowing  will  permit  the 
absorption  of  a  much  larger  percentage  of  heavy  rains,  thus  greatly 
reducing  erosion  and  storing  up  much  larger  amounts  of  moisture 
for  drier  seasons.  Most  of  the  soils  that  are  cultivated  in  pineapples 
become  hard  and  closely  compacted  within  a  few  months  after 
planting.  Consequently  it  is  necessary  to  plow  as  deeply  as  possible 
between  crops. 

Subsoiling  has  not  been  extensively  practiced,  but  deep  plowing 
should  be  the  rule  in  all  sections.  The  subsoils  are  not  very  different 
from  the  soils,  except  in  some  of  the  rainy  sections  like  Olaa,  and, 
after  being  acted  upon  for  a  short  time  by  weathering  influences, 
seem  to  be  equally  as  fertile  as  the  surface  soil.  In  the  drier  sections 
deep  plowing  encourages  deeper  root  development,  thus  tending  to 
enable  the  crop  to  withstand  drought.  Successful  soil  management 
in  Hawaii,  therefore,  requires  deep  plowing,  followed  by  frequent 
shallow  cultivation. 

INJURIOUS    EFFECT    OF   PUDDLING. 

Great  care  and  intelligence  must  always  be  exercised  in  plowing 
and  tilling  clay  soils.  The  clay  particles  are  extremely  small  and 
tend  to  settle  down  between  the  coarser  grains,  thus  clogging  the 
pores.  However,  the  fine  particles  can  be  made  to  unite  into  granules 
by  the  judicious  handling  of  the  soil.  In  the  natural  state  carbonic 
acid  formed  from  the  decomposition  of  vegetation  and  aided  by  evapo- 
ration causes  the  smaller  particles  to  coalesce  into  granules,  which 
then  act  as  if  the  particles  themselves  were  coarse.  In  this  condition 
a  heavy  clay  soil  may  be  well  aerated  and  fertile.  On  the  other 
hand,  tillage,  in  times  of  too  great  moisture,  breaks  up  the  granules, 
producing  a  puddled  condition  which  is  very  difficult  to  bring  back 
into  a  state  of  granulation. 

During  the  early  stages  of  the  cultivation  of  sod  lands  the  bacterial 
processes  bring  about  a  rapid  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter, 
which  causes  the  clay  to  become  granulated.  After  a  few  years, 
however,  the  organic  matter  has  been  so  completely  decomposed 
that  the  clay  is  easily  puddled  under  the  ordinary  operations  of  cul- 
tivation. A  single  cultivation  of  such  soils  when  they  are  wet  causes 
serious  puddling.  The  pineapple  growers  in  the  Wahiawa  district 
have  greatly  injured  their  lands  by  cultivating  too  soon  after  rains. 
Much  of  the  so-called  exhaustion  of  Hawaiian  pineapple  soils  is  trace- 
able to  wet  cultivation. 


17 

ROTATION'    OF    CROPS. 

The  rotation  of  crops  is  essential  to  a  permanent  upkeep  of  the  soil. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  reasons  for  this  fact.  Some  of 
them  still  remain  in  obscurity.  Crop  rotation  is  of  very  great 
importance  in  the  proper  management  of  Hawaiian  clay  soils.  As 
stated  above,  the  humus  is  considerably  above  the  average,  but  the 
peculiarities  of  the  clay  necessitate  still  greater  amounts.  The  fine 
particles  of  iron  and  alumina  become  hydrated  when  wet  and  adhere 
to  all  the  soil  particles.  Only  by  the  maintenance  of  large  amounts 
of  humus  can  such  soils  be  kept  in  a  suitable  condition  for  plant 
growth. 

The  pineapple  growers,  following  the  lead  of  the  sugar  planters, 
have  attempted  to  grow  the  same  crop  continuously,  but  in  many 
cases  with  poor  results.  The  reason  is  found  in  the  need  for  humus. 
Crop  rotation  will  supply  this  need,  if  a  green  manuring  crop  be  plowed 
under.  Humus  is  the  key  to  successful  soil  management  in  Hawaii 
as  is  the  case  elsewhere.  At  the  present  time  this  fact  is  being  rec- 
ognized by  the  sugar  planters  as  never  before.  Instead  of  burning 
the  trash  and  crop  residue,  they  should  be  plowed  under,  thereby 
increasing  the  humus  content.  Organic  matter  undergoes  rapid 
decomposition  in  the  Tropics,  and  the  necessary  condition  of  aera- 
tion hastens  the  decomposition.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  plow 
under  green  manure  frequently.  The  details  of  crop  rotation  will 
not  be  discussed  in  this  bulletin.  With  the  pineapple  lands  a  green 
manuring  crop  can  be  grown  between  crops.  The  choice  of  the 
green  manuring  crop  will  depend  on  the  locality.  It  should  be  a 
legume  if  possible.  The  single-crop  system  can  not  be  permanent, 
and  it  is  of  doubtful  economy  at  any  time.  Sooner  or  later  it  must 
inevitably  give  way  to  diversification. 

-  The  retention  of  moisture  during  dry  weather  can  be  greatly 
increased  by  increasing  the  humus  content  of  the  soil,  so  that  suffi- 
cient moisture  will  be  retained  for  the  growth  of  crops  during  con- 
tinued dry  weather.  The  success  of  crops  in  the  semiarid  sections 
of  Kula  and  the  Parker  ranch  is  due  very  largely  to  the  high  humus 
content  of  the  soils.  On  one  of  the  fields  at  the  experiment  sta- 
tion, where  a  legume  has  been  plowed  under  each  year  for  the  past 
several  years,  the  structure  of  the  soil  has  been  materially  modified 
and  the  moisture-retaining  power  greatly  increased.  Similar  effects 
can  be  had  with  any  of  the  clay  soils  throughout  the  islands. 
Hawaiian  clay  soils  require  a  higher  percentage  of  moisture  than  is 
usual,  due  to  their  high  hygroscopic  capacity  and  the  slow  move- 
ment of  moisture  through  the  soil.  Hygroscopic  moisture  will  not 
sustain  plant  life. 

98554°— Bull.  40—15 3 


18 


EROSION   AND   DRAINAGE. 


The  amount  and  extent  of  soil  erosion  in  Hawaii  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  The  heavy  rains  wash  away  enormous  quantities  of 
soil.  This  can  be  prevented  by  a  combination  of  deep  plowing, 
proper  drainage,  and  green  manuring.  When  the  soil  is  compacted 
rain  waters  flow  over  the  surface  rather  than  being  absorbed,  thus 
washing  away  much  soil  material  and  cutting  gullies.  Where  ditches 
are  provided  they  should  be  arranged  close  together  in  the  direction 
of  the  greatest  fall,  so  as  to  carry  away  the  surplus  water  and  prevent 
overflow.  In  some  places  much  damage  has  been  done  to  crops  by 
the  overflow  from  inadequate  ditches.  The  use  of  dynamite,  for 
the  purpose  of  shattering  the  subsoil  and  allowing  better  drainage, 
has  been  practiced  with  good  results  in  some  localities.  The  plow- 
ing under  of  coral  sand  has  also  been  effectively  used  in  some  localities 
as  a  means  of  improving  aeration  and  drainage  conditions,  and 
around  Honolulu  gardeners  frequently  mix  black  sand  with  the  soil 
for  the  same  purpose. 

USE    OF    FERTILIZERS. 

The  table  of  chemical  analyses  at  the  end  of  the  bulletin  shows 
that,  on  the  whole,  Hawaiian  soils  are  well  supplied  with  phosphoric 
acid  and  nitrogen  with  a  medium  content  of  potash.  In  many  locali- 
ties the  soil  contains  unusually  high  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  nitrogen.  Nevertheless,  heavy  fertilization  is  generally  prac- 
ticed, due  to  the  low  availability  of  plant  food.  It  is  more  rational, 
however,  to  make  available  the  plant  food  already  contained  in  the 
soil,  if  this  can  be  done  economically.  The  methods  by  which  this 
may  be  accomplished  have  already  been  suggested.  These  consist 
briefly  in  increasing  the  aeration  by  deep  plowing,  thorough  drainage, 
and  the  frequent  plowing  under  of  green  manures,  which,  if  carried 
out  systematically,  will  materially  lessen  the  need  for  commercial 
fertilizers. 

The  exact  fertilizer  for  each  crop  varies  in  different  districts.  In 
general  both  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  give  good  results.  Nitrate 
of  soda,  ammonium  sulphate,  and  organic  forms  of  nitrogen  each 
produce  good  effects,  but,  generally  speaking,  organic  forms  and 
ammonium  sulphate  are  recommended  in  preference  to  nitrate  of 
soda,  especially  during  seasons  of  heavy  rainfall.  The  soils  have  the 
power  of  absorbing  large  amounts  of  ammonium  sulphate,  thus  pre- 
venting its  being  leached  out,  but  nitrate  of  soda  is  not  fixed  by  soils. 

When  the  organic  matter  is  deficient  the  phosphoric  acid  is  generally 
of  low  availability  and  phosphate  fertilizers  are  needed.  Soluble 
phosphates  will  give  best  immediate  returns,  but  if  applied  in  con- 
junction with  decaying  organic  matter,  insoluble  forms  may  be  used. 
Pot  experiments  at  the  station,  carried  through  several  crops,  indi- 


19 

cate  that  rock  phosphate,  when  acted  upon  for  a  few  months  by 
decaying  organic  matter,  becomes  as  available  as  superphosphate, 
but  when  applied  without  organic  matter  the  immediate  e fleet  is 
negligible.  From  these  experiments  it  also  seems  that  water-soluble 
phosphates  produce  better  immediate  effects  than  reverted  phosphate 
and  bone  meal.  It  has  also  been  found  that  the  availability  of  the 
phosphate  already  in  the  soil  can  be  considerably  increased  by  plow- 
ing under  green  manure,  and  that  liming  in  some  instances  is  neces- 
sary before  phosphate  fertilizer  will  give  its  best  effects.  Hawaiian 
soils  have  the  power  of  fixing  very  large  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and,  therefore,  loss  will  not  be  sustained  by  leaching.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, that  where  excessive  amounts  have  been  applied  some  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  becomes  reverted  into  unavailable  forms. 

When  potash  fertilizer  is  needed  the  sulphate  is  recommended,  and 
potash,  like  ammonia,  is  not  lost  by  leaching  if  applied  in  reasonable 
amounts. 

CHEMICAL  AND  MECHANICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  HAWAIIAN 

SOILS. 

In  the  following  tables  are  given  the  results  of  chemical  and  mechani- 
cal analyses  of  a  large  number  of  soils  and  subsoils  taken  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  all  of  the  principal  islands.  In  Table  I  the  results  of  the 
chemical  analyses  of  soils  and  subsoils1  are  given;  in  Table  II  the 
humus,  humus  ash,  and  total  nitrogen  are  stated;  and  in  Table  III 
the  mechanical  composition  is  shown.  In  general  the  soil  represents 
the  first  foot  and  the  subsoil  the  second  foot  taken.  In  most  instances 
the  material  analyzed  represents  a  composite  of  from  two  to  five 
samples  taken  in  the  same  locality.  The  methods  employed  for  the 
chemical  analysis  were  those  of  the  official  agricultural  chemists. 
The  classification  of  soils  adopted  in  the  table  of  mechanical  composi- 
tion is  that  of  Hall.2 

1  The  subsoil  in  all  cases  was  taken  in  connection  with  the  preceding  soil  sample. 

2  The  Soil.     London,  1908,  2.  ed.,  p.  51. 


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9.98 

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23.38 
55.89 
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2.60 
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32 


Table  II. — Humus,  humus  ash,  and  total  nitrogen  in  Hawaiian  soils. 


Soil 
No. 

Location. 

Hu- 
mus. 

Hu- 
mus 
ash. 

Total 
nitro- 
gen. 

Soil 
No. 

Location. 

Hu- 
mus. 

Hu- 
mus 
ash. 

Total 
nitro- 
gen. 

326 

327 
328 

474 

HAWAII. 

Puuanahulu: 

1,300-foot  level. 

1,400-foot  level. 

1,500-foot  level. 
Parker     ranch, 
Waimea: 

Soil 

Per  ct. 
6.49 
3.08 
7.01 

7.96 
6.50 

9.64 

5.54 
4.06 
3.51 
3.10 
12.32 
11.30 

6.96 
5.74 

16.36 
10.32 
3.98 
3.22 

25.52 
14.76 
14.56 

3.35 

2.38 

2.80 
1.65 
4.60 

4.28 
2.54 
2.89 

4.41 
3.71 
4.71 
2.55 
2.56 

3.61 

4.27 
3.92 
4.16 
4.25 
4.56 
5.21 
19.13 

6.70 
4.29 
6.72 

2.34 
2.76 

2.92 
1.25 

Per  ct. 
1.19 
1.44 
1.71 

3.65 
2.90 

3.32 

1.33 
1.62 
1.46 
1.24 
3.32 
2.20 

"2."  35' 

3.90 
4.15 
2.40 
2.82 

4.20 
6.52 
2.58 

.90 
1.96 

1.90 
1.10 
2.44 

1.29 
1.06 

.71 

1.36 
1.36 
1.04 
1.39 
1.42 

"*\"98" 
1.10 
1.31 
1.00 
1.06 
2.11 
6.33 

1.92 

1.81 
1.03 

1.04 
1.10 

1.02 
.65 

Per  ct. 

0.33 

.26 

.27 

.65 
.60 

.64 

.41 
.23 

.18 
.49 
.74 
.55 

.36 
.24 

1.68 

.81 
.41 
.31 

2.13 
.61 

.74 

.28 
.09 

.01 
.10 
.23 

.30 
.16 
.36 

.29 
.16 
.31 
.16 
.15 

.27 
.26 
.32 
.28 
.27 
.34 
.30 
1.32 

"*".*52 

.31 

.27 

.49 
.38 

363 
364 
365 
366 

349 
350 

353 
354 

357 
358 

359 
360 

71 

292 
293 

288 
289 
290 
291 

7 
9 
97 
98 
99 
101 
102 
103 
104 
100 
19 

282 
283 
284 
285 
286 
287 

300 
301 

302 
303 
304 
305 

306 
307 
308 
309 
310 
311 

341 
342 

maui— continued. 

Honolua: 

650-foot  level... 

Subsoil 

850-foot  level... 
Subsoil 

MOLOKAl. 

Naiwa  district. 

1,500-foot  level: 
Soil 

Per  ct. 
3.90 
1.43 
3.88 
2.42 

3.37 

4.64 

1.65 
1.28 

.94 
.98 

2.20 
3.76 

2.00 
1.49 
1.76 

3.06 
2.71 
1.66 
1.55 

3.03 
3.18 
2.64 
2.81 
3.84 
3.61 
3.37 
4.74 
3.22 
3.48 
2.98 

2.77 
1.78 
2.72 
2.03 
3.15 
3.64 

5.93 
3.49 

9.65 
3.10 
2.74 
2.88 

3.86 
4.99 
4.06 
3.14 
4.99 
4.18 

3.44 
4.13 

Per  ct. 

3.10 

.97 

1.25 

1.25 

1.13 
2.86 

.71 

.86 

.46 
.68 

.84 
1.79 

"T27" 
1.19 

1.48 

1.71 

.36 

2.25 

1.60 
.54 
.54 
.75 
.57 
.78 
.70 

1.12 
.76 
.64 

1.45 

1.04 
.79 
.70 
.63 
.94 

1.38 

1.46 
1.41 

2.31 

1.66 

.61 

.66 

1.36 
1.42 
1.03 
.83 
1.26 
1.00 

1.38 
1.25 

Per  ct. 
.29 
.14 
.36 
.15 

475 
468 

74 

Subsoil 

Parker      ranch, 

Makahalau 

Parker     ranch, 

Waikii 

24 

75 

Do 

Subsoil 

860-foot  level: 
Soil... 

19 

76 

Do 

448 

Hilo 

18 

428 

Glenwood 

Subsoil 

380-foot  level: 

Soil 

13 

221 

Do 

Pahala,  3,000-foot 
level: 
Soil 

08 

497 

Subsoil 

30-foot  level: 

Soil 

.08 

498 

Subsoil 

Honaunau: 

460-foot  level... 

Subsoil 

760-foot  level... 

Subsoil 

Kiilae: 

2,050-foot  level. 

Subsoil 

2,700-foot  level. 

KAUAI. 

Makaweli: 

Soil 

25 

422 
423 
418 
419 

Subsoil 

OAHU. 

Waikiki: 

SoU 

.19 
.16 

437 
438 
439 

Do 

Subsoil 

Experiment     sta- 
tion: 
Soil 

.14 
.13 

.21 

Subsoil 

Soil 

.15 

.19 

493 

Subsoil 

Hawaiian  Pineap- 
ple Co.,  Wahiawa: 
Soil 

12 

494 
495 

Subsoil 

Kekaha: 

Soil 

.32 

496 
117 

Subsoil 

Hanapepe 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Subsoil 

Thomas  Pineapple 

Co.,  Wahiawa. 
Leilehua 

.18 
.23 

429 

Kauai    Fruit     & 
Land  Co.: 
Soil 

.23 
.24 
.22 

430 
207 

426 

Subsoil 

Homestead 

Kapaa: 

Soil 

.25 
.21 

.19 
17 

427 
211 

Subsoil 

Kilauea 

.22 

463 

Hanalei 

.40 

467 

Do 

Do 

.26 

MAUI. 

Haiku 

Do 

.32 

Do 

.34 

Do 

.44 

60 

Do 

.38 

544 

Do 

Kaneohe: 

Soil 

545 

Do 

.35 

551 

Do 

Subsoil 

Heeia: 

SoU 

.21 

552 

Do 

557 

Do 

.53 

558 

Do  .. 

Subsoil 

SoU 

.20 

69 

.24 

525 

Kaupo,      Omsted 
place: 
Soil 

SubsoU 

Kaneohe: 

Soil 

.24 
.32 

526 
61 

Subsoil 

Kula,  Do  wdle  field 
Ulupalakua  ranch: 

Soil       

SubsoU 

SoU 

.28 
.31 

377 

SubsoU 

SoU 

.29 
.22 

378 
381 

Subsoil 

Kamaole  Church: 
Soil 

SubsoU 

MaunawUi: 

SoU 

.17 
.15 

382 

Subsoil 

Subsoil 

.31 

33 


Table  III. — Mechanical  composition  of  Hawaiian  soils. 


Soil 
No. 


Location. 


Volatile 
matter. 


Fine 
gravel. 


Coarse 
sand. 


Fine 
sand. 

Silt. 

Fine  silt. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

22.48 

19.28 

28.64 

30.46 

17.58 

20.73 

22.86 

14.81 

25.15 

38.03 

16.22 

19.99 

29.50 

18.65 

20.75 

26.70 

22.90 

24.45 

36.20 

21.82 

13.60 

16.31 

13.45 

20.00 

15.83 

5.38 

1.76 

32.15 

12.65 

14.17 

17.60 

15.70 

24.50 

15.23 

13.62 

25.80 

26.29 

16.03 

10.33 

36.75 

21.63 

9.19 

16.62 

17.46 

31.88 

16.31 

14.07 

35.48 

22.15 

21.63 

23.61 

22.02 

19.58 

25.76. 

20.72 

21.04 

27.65 

19.43 

19.19 

28.52 

5.48 

6.49 

33.40 

7.58 

7.22 

36.50 

11.78 

11.65 

24.20 

5.72 

4.65 

33.20 

4.17 

4.43 

34.20 

9.66 

12.78 

29.01 

11.88 

9.04 

22.28 

18.35 

10.31 

32.45 

26.89 

13.37 

20.69 

40.90 

9.85 

15.01 

8.65 

4.07 

5.09 

20.40 

9.53 

35.80 

5.71 

5.62 

11.55 

20.40 

9.26 

36.30 

13.58 

6.25 

13.35 

21.21 

10.63 

39.88 

5.18 

7.77 

17.20 

39.51 

16.02 

9.73 

14.47 

10.84 

26.43 

19.79 

17.59 

26.51 

13.09 

11.63 

29.11 

11.64 

20.89 

37.95 

4.02 

7.11 

18.64 

Clay. 


327 

328 

74 

75 

76 

573 


448 


111 
112 
113 

422 
423 
420 
421 
424 
425 
418 
419 


116 
117 
118 
119 
120 

373 
374 
375 
376 


61 


10.5 


106 
108 


361 
362 
363 
364 
365 
Iftfl 


Kohala  district. 

Puuanahulu: 

1,300-foot  level 

1,400-foot  level 

1,500-foot  level 

Parker  ranch,  Waikii.. 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Hilo  district. 
Hilo 

Olaa  district. 

Glenwood 

Kona  district. 

Keahui 

Do 

Do 

Hanauhau: 

460-foot  level 

Subsoil 

510-foot  level 

Subsoil 

680-foot  level 

Subsoil 

760-foot  level 

Subsoil 

KAUAI. 

Kona  district. 

Hanapepe 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Koloa: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Soil 

Subsoil 

MAUI. 

Hamakuapoko  district. 

Haiku 

Koolau  district. 
Nahiku 

Kula  district. 

Alexander  field: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Sofl 

Subsoil 

Dowdle  field: 

Sofl 

Subsoil 

Kaanapali  district. 

Honolua: 

450-foot  level 

Subsoil 

650-foot  level 

Subsoil 

850-foot  level 

Subsoil 


Per  cent. 
17.15 
18.31 
17.41 
25.83 
21.75 
19.45 
23.30 


32.95 


22.65 
32.70 
33.60 

43.50 
26.97 
22.93 
19.12 
20.30 
16.87 
17.95 
13.42 


18.75 
19.90 
15.60 
13.74 
17.85 


21.41 
16.42 
25.28 
19.21 


25.16 


44.60 


11.59 
14.80 
12.00 
15.55 

10.57 
14.92 


16.22 
13.09 
16.11 
13.32 
16.46 
17.22 


Per  cent. 

0.22 

.24 

.34 

1.64 
.03  I 
.02 
1.71 


1.94 


13.81 


.00 
.07 
.12 

1.66 
1.97 
2.17 
.49 
3.18 
3.95 
3.10 
5.25 


Per  cent. 

0.58 

.65 

.73 

H 

3.48 
2.14 


8.60 


32.82 


14.42 
3.22 
2.49 

1.87 
2.98 
2.26 
1.29 
3.99 
5. 15 
3.04 
5.10 


.02 
.10 

1.23 
.34 

1.45 


12 


,12 


5.94 


0.98 
0.53 
1.12 
0.96 

1.21 
0.92 


1.57 
3.11 


.40 
.12 
.42 
.45 


7.20 


26.72 


Percent. 
13.54 
13.26 
19.94 
2.05 
4.48 
3.55 
3.75 


6.85 


5.38 
6.58 
7.10 

1.07 
.99 
7.16 
14.03 
3.98 
6.29 
6.67 
9.09 


35.50 
27.40 
35.80 
43.70 
39.10 

27.24 
41.09 
15.04 
20.92 


.94 
.12 
.68 
.24 
1.90 
.15 


2.93 


5.78 


22.55 
64.10 
21.85 
51.26 

15.87 
54.30 


17.36 
35.57 
19.39 
33.32 
13.89 
54.11 


34 


Table  III. — Mechanical  composition  of  Hawaiian  soils — Continued. 


Soil 
No. 

Location. 

Volatile 
matter. 

Fine 

gravel. 

Coarse 
sand. 

Fine 
sand. 

Silt. 

Fine  silt. 

Clay. 

349 

MOLOKAI. 

Naiwa  district. 

1,500-foot  level: 

Soil 

Per  cent. 
10.71 
16.38 

9.06 
13.18 

15.24 
13.54 

13.05 
12.48 

12.95 
12.98 

15.39 
17.82 

8.71 
10.77 

14.42 

13.82 
16.22 
14.37 

14.37 
14.05 
15.23 

16.60 

13.14 
16.77 
14.32 
13.65 
15.80 
13.06 
14.67 
17.58 
16.17 
15.55 
14.41 
13.35 
16.66 
19.70 
15.13 
19.35 
20.34 
18.88 
21.20 
19.91 
21.11 
20.48 

20.43 
3.61 
12.88 

14.54 
14.15 
16.39 
13.54 

Per  cent. 

0.46 

.03 

.08 
.01 

.03 
.05 

.01 
.00 

.03 
.00 

.25 
.00 

20.91 
18.61 

.85 
.56 
.14 
.00 

1.15 
1.02 
.62 

.04 

.00 

.87 

.09 

.12 

.73 

.14 

.29 

.05 

.09 

.41 

0. 

0. 

2.54 

3.79 

1.24 

0. 

.69 

.80 

.69 

.95 

.34 

.91 

.01 
0. 
0. 

.02 

.04 

1.98 

2.16 

Per  cent. 
1.00 
.24 

.36 
.16 

.41 
.54 

.73 
.86 

.23 
.15 

.55 
.13 

18.75 
18.30 

7.92 

6.16 
.58 
.39 

1.61 
1.28 
1.63 

1.62 

.77 

8.20 

.43 

.43 

.86 

.50 

.91 

.26 

.42 

1.65 

50 

30 

6.28 
5.90 
.39 
88 

2.31 
2.86 
2.41 
2.39 
1.76 
1.80 

1.65 
17 

47 

.42 

.23 

3.67 

6.71 

Per  cent. 

22.05 

9.80 

13.89 
11.41 

35.86 
30.67 

36.15 
40.41 

39.84 
40.54 

44.65 
48.13 

22.04 
22.74 

16.19 

8.89 
7.77 
7.40 

18.34 
20.63 
15.33 

8.94 

3.64 

22.44 

1.62 

2.11 

2.35 

1.33 

1.12 

.81 

2.36 

1.65 

5.97 

2.31 

21.17 

33.10 

8.71 

33.95 

23.44 

23.79 

28.11 

25.62 

24.89 

27.47 

45.17 
3.79 
3.72 

11.65 
3.88 
19.57 
11.22 

Per  cent. 
12.34 
8.99 

20.32 
9.09 

18.59 
20.49 

14.89 
15.35 

17.72 
14.96 

21.98 
23.73 

8.69 
8.10 

10.94 
6.96 
9.33 

7.28 

16.28 
17.88 
15.77 

9.08 

8.85 
13.94 
3.31 
3.06 
9.28 
6.23 
7.38 
5.60 
6.44 
6.72 
10.74 
6.79 
14.57 
11.50 
10.10 
14.55 
12.84 
11.75 
11.26 
10.69 
13.13 
11.13 

12.86 
19.50 
6.03 

11.41 
6.67 
9.16 
7.43 

Per  cent. 
45.95 
27.20 

45.99 
24.99 

18.78 
19.05 

19.47 
18.06 

14.40 
13.67 

9.91 
6.59 

12.41 
13.48 

25.31 
24.07 
18.14 
12.13 

23.88 
22.11 
21.73 

31.35 

34.54 
23.13 
27.19 
26.32 
32.69 
28.88 
18.87 
22.70 
29.07 
18.45 
39.40 
38.42 
21.90 
17.56 
26.90 
19.34 
23.69 
20.95 
19.86 
22.71 
23.65 
22.96 

9.82 
51.70 
45.40 

46.30 
28.43 
32.09 
23.75 

Per  cent. 
8.91 

350 

Subsoil 

39.70 

351 

1,050-foot  level: 

Soil 

10.98 

352 

Subsoil 

43.23 

353 

860-foot  level: 

Soil 

12.09 

354 

16.10 

355 

600-foot  level: 

Soil 

15.85 

356 

Subsoil 

14.22 

357 

380-foot  level: 

Soil 

14.97 

358 

Subsoil 

17.75 

359 

30-foot  level: 

Soil 

7.45 

360 

3.96 

292 

OAHU. 

Eona  district. 

Waikiki: 

Soil 

7.23 

293 

9.52 

288 

Experiment  station: 
Soil 

24.89 

289 

Subsoil 

40.35 

290 

Soil 

48.35 

291 

Subsoil 

59.35 

332 

Kalihi: 

Soil 

25.37 

333 

Subsoil 

24.06 

334 

Soil 

31.61 

114 

7 

Waipio  district. 

Hawaiian  Pineapple  Co. 

Wahiawa  district. 

Hawaiian  Pineapple  Co: 
Soil 

32.20 
36.28 

9 

Do 

13.11 

97 

Do 

52.30 

98 

Do 

55.05 

99 

Do 

38.60 

101 

Do 

47.45 

102 

Do 

57.80 

103 

Do 

56.72 

104 

Do 

44.54 

100 

Subsoil 

57.80 

530 

Soil 

28.95 

19 

15 

516 

Thomas  Pineapple  Co. . . 

Hawaiian  Preserving  Co. 

Do 

37.58 
15.50 

8.42 

574 

Do 

37.70 

542 

Kunia 

11.95 

282 

Leilehua 

18.45 

283 

Do 

22.59 

284 

Do 

19.51 

285 

Do 

19.37 

286 

Do 

16.71 

287 

Do 

17.90 

331 

Waialua  district. 
Helemano 

11.31 

164 

21.10 

115 

Do 

31.80 

49 

Pnpuukea: 

Soil 

16.77 

50 

Subsoil 

48.57 

51 

Soil 

19.13 

52 

Subsoil 

36.69 

35 


Table  III. — Mechanical  composition  of  Hawaiian  soils — Continued. 


Soil 
No. 


Location. 


Volatile 
matter. 


Fine 
gravel. 


Coarse 
sand. 


Fine 
sand. 


Silt. 


Fine  silt. 


Clay. 


347 
348 


345 
346 
319 

300 
301 

302 
303 
304 
305 

306 
307 

308 
309 
310 
311 
312 
313 
314 
315 
316 
317 
318 
343 
344 

337 
338 
339 
340 

341 
342 


oahu— Continued . 

Koolauloa  district. 

Koluanui: 

Soil 

Subsoil 


Koolaupoko  district. 

Waiahole: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Heeia 

Kaneohe: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Wireless  Station,  Heeia 

SoU 

Subsoil 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Koeling's,  Kaneohe: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Kaneohe: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Soil 

Subsoil 

SoU 

Do 

SubsoU 

Soil 

Subsoil 

SoU 

SubsoU 

SoU 

SubsoU 

Kailua: 

Soil 

Subsoil 

Soil 

Subsoil 

MaunawUi: 

SoU 

SubsoU 


Per  cent. 
36.14 
49.24 


15.04 
15.31 
20.31 

13.94 
11.71 

23.71 
16.43 
16.14 
16.13 

17.34 
19.44 

19.12 
18.21 
18.53 
17.81 
22.42 
13.64 
11.95 
20.69 
17.77 
19.08 
19.30 
15.44 
13.20 

18.72 
19.54 
21.17 
19.41 

19.39 
20.61 


Per  cent. 

0.41 

.22 


Per  cent. 

0.83 

.64 


3.09 

3.59 

.54 

.59 
.35 

.48 
.23 
.42 
.32 

.35 
.53 

1.10 

.94 

.54 

.62 

.96 

1.46 

1.00 

1.35 

.87 

.56 

.75 

.19 

.11 


.22 
.31 


1.31 


Per  cent. 
21.49 
11.29 


25.94 
34.44 
20.98 

24.11 
31.08 

15.56 
5.93 
16.76 
12.78 

10.50 
26.64 

17.57 
17.66 
13.40 
10.41 
25.76 
20.90 
24.68 
23.80 
23.79 
12.62 
16.14 
16.03 
15.29 

18.78 
18.60 
18.13 
16.75 

32.29 
17.90 


Per  cent. 
27.45 
15.27 


20.97 
19.30 
18.07 

14.47 
19.13 

17.66 
9.42 
16.61 
15.51 

13.03 
16.17 

14.00 
15.97 
19.08 
15.09 
13.54 
45.63 
26.08 
15.21 
20.87 
16.82 
22.17 
30.79 
28.94 

13.57 
15.97 
20.42 
19.27 

20.92 
16.18 


Per  cent. 

7.61 

20.07 


15.96 
10.96 
25.31 

35.03 
21.91 

31.42 
25.72 
25.47 
27.79 

37.03 
28.53 

35.86 
36.36 
29.24 
21.65 
25.19 
11.38 
27.35 
21.91 
17.34 
26.53 
24.82 
14.64 
20.67 

22.92 
21.97 
22.37 
23.42 

15.64 
34.39 


Per  cent. 
6.38 
6.19 


19.84 
14.29 
16.42 

11.05 
15.59 

11.44 
42.78 
23.53 
26.78 

22.06 
8.76 

10.72 
10.90 
20.07 
32.45 
14.74 
8.34 
7.55 
19.25 
20.04 
25.83 
18.17 
20.16 
21.73 

25.70 
23.19 
19.19 
22.98 

12.26 
11.37 


Hill 


